The sample analysis was shown only in class and is not viewable in this version of the notes.

• Course overview

• Introduction to R, RStudio and R Markdown

• Programming basics

• No programming knowledge presumed

• Some stats knowledge presumed. E.g.:
  • Hypothesis testing (t-tests, confidence intervals)
  • Linear regression

• Synchronous attendance is encouraged, but not required

• Class will be very cumulative

• Two 80 minute lectures a week:
  • First 60-70 minutes: concepts, methods, examples
  • Last 10-20 minutes: short labs
• Class participation (10%)
• Quizzes (10%)
• Weekly homework (40%)
• Final project (2.5 weeks) (40%)
  • Disclaimer: To pass the class, you must achieve a passing score on the final project
    (at least 21 / 40)

• Class participation (10%)
  • Labs: Each lecture has an accompanying lab assignment.
  • Course website shows how participation grade will be calculated
• Quizzes (10%)
  • 4 quizzes in the second half of term. Dates TBA.
• Homework assignments (40%)
  • There will be 5 weekly HW assignments
  • Single lowest HW score will be dropped
  • HW assigned on Wednesdays, due Wednesdays at 1:30PM ET
  • Late homework will not be accepted for credit
• Final project (40%)
  • You will write a report analysing a policy question using a publicly available data set

• Assignments, office hours, class notes, grading policies, useful references on R: http://www.andrew.cmu.edu/~achoulde/94842/

• Canvas for gradebook and for turning in homework

• Piazza for discussion forum (embedded in Canvas)
  • Please post class/homework related question on Piazza instead of emailing the teaching staff

• Check the class website for everything else

• No required textbook, but I highly recommend:
  • Garrett Grolemund and Hadley Wickham, R for Data Science

• Free (open-source)

• Programming language (not point-and-click)

• Excellent graphics

• Offers broadest range of statistical tools

• Easy to generate reproducible reports

• Easy to integrate with other tools

Basic interaction with R is through typing in the console

This is the terminal or command-line interface

• You type in commands, R gives back answers (or errors)

• Menus and other graphical interfaces are extras built on top of the console

• We will use RStudio in this class

1. Download R: http://lib.stat.cmu.edu/R/CRAN

2. Then download RStudio: http://www.rstudio.com/

RStudio has 4 main windows (‘panes’):

• Source
• Console
• Workspace/History
• Files/Plots/Packages/Help

1. Source pane: create a file that you can save and run later

2. Console pane: type or paste in commands to get output from R

3. Workspace/History pane: see a list of variables or previous commands

4. Files/Plots/Packages/Help pane: see plots, help pages, and other items in this window.

• R Markdown allows the user to integrate R code into a report

• When data changes or code changes, so does the report

• No more need to copy-and-paste graphics, tables, or numbers

• Creates reproducible reports
  • Anyone who has your R Markdown (.Rmd) file and input data can re-run your analysis and get the exact same results (tables, figures, summaries)

• Can output report in HTML (default), Microsoft Word, or PDF

1. Open RStudio on your machine

2. File > New File > R Markdown …
3. Change summary(cars) in the first code block to print("Hello world!")
4. Click Knit HTML to produce an HTML file.

5. Save your Rmd file as helloworld.Rmd

All of your Homework assignments and many of your Labs will take the form of a single Rmd file, which you will edit to include your solutions and then submit on Canvas

• Everything we’ll do comes down to applying functions to data

• Data: things like 7, “seven”, \(7.000\), the matrix \(\left[ \begin{array}{ccc} 7 & 7 & 7 \\ 7 & 7 & 7\end{array}\right]\)

• Functions: things like \(\log{}\), \(+\) (two arguments), \(<\) (two), \(\mod{}\) (two), mean (one)

A function is a machine which turns input objects (arguments) into an output object (return value), possibly with side effects, according to a definite rule

You’ll encounter different kinds of data types

• Booleans Direct binary values: TRUE or FALSE in R

• Integers: whole numbers (positive, negative or zero)

• Characters fixed-length blocks of bits, with special coding; strings = sequences of characters

• Floating point numbers: a fraction (with a finite number of bits) times an exponent, like \(1.87 \times {10}^{6}\)

• Missing or ill-defined values: NA, NaN, etc.

You can use R as a very, very fancy calculator

7 + 5 # Addition

## [1] 12

7 - 5 # Subtraction

## [1] 2

7 * 5 # Multiplication

## [1] 35

7 ^ 5 # Exponentiation

## [1] 16807

7 / 5 # Division

## [1] 1.4

7 %% 5 # Modulus

## [1] 2

7 %/% 5 # Integer division 

## [1] 1

Comparisons are also binary operators; they take two objects, like numbers, and give a Boolean

7 > 5

## [1] TRUE

7 < 5

## [1] FALSE

7 >= 7

## [1] TRUE

7 <= 5

## [1] FALSE

7 == 5

## [1] FALSE

7 != 5

## [1] TRUE

Basically “and” and “or”:

(5 > 7) & (6*7 == 42)

## [1] FALSE

(5 > 7) | (6*7 == 42)

## [1] TRUE

(will see special doubled forms, && and ||, later)

• typeof() function returns the type

• is.foo() functions return Booleans for whether the argument is of type foo

• as.foo() (tries to) “cast” its argument to type foo — to translate it sensibly into a foo-type value

Special case: as.factor() will be important later for telling R when numbers are actually encodings and not numeric values. (E.g., 1 = High school grad; 2 = College grad; 3 = Postgrad) ##

typeof(7)

## [1] "double"

is.numeric(7)

## [1] TRUE

is.na(7)

## [1] FALSE

is.character(7)

## [1] FALSE

is.character("7")

## [1] TRUE

is.character("seven")

## [1] TRUE

is.na("seven")

## [1] FALSE

We can give names to data objects; these give us variables

A few variables are built in:

pi

## [1] 3.141593

Variables can be arguments to functions or operators, just like constants:

pi*10

## [1] 31.41593

cos(pi)

## [1] -1

Most variables are created with the assignment operator, <- or =

time.factor <- 12
time.factor

## [1] 12

time.in.years = 2.5
time.in.years * time.factor

## [1] 30

The assignment operator also changes values:

time.in.months <- time.in.years * time.factor
time.in.months

## [1] 30

time.in.months <- 45
time.in.months

## [1] 45

• Using names and variables makes code: easier to design, easier to debug, less prone to bugs, easier to improve, and easier for others to read

• Avoid “magic constants”; use named variables

• Use descriptive variable names
  • Good: num.students <- 35
  • Bad: ns <- 35

What names have you defined values for?

ls()

## [1] "time.factor"    "time.in.months" "time.in.years"

Getting rid of variables:

rm("time.in.months")
ls()

## [1] "time.factor"   "time.in.years"

• Group related data values into one object, a data structure

• A vector is a sequence of values, all of the same type

• c() function returns a vector containing all its arguments in order

students <- c("Sean", "Louisa", "Frank", "Farhad", "Li")
midterm <- c(80, 90, 93, 82, 95)

• Typing the variable name at the prompt causes it to display

students

## [1] "Sean"   "Louisa" "Frank"  "Farhad" "Li"

• vec[1] is the first element, vec[4] is the 4th element of vec

students

## [1] "Sean"   "Louisa" "Frank"  "Farhad" "Li"

students[4]

## [1] "Farhad"

• vec[-4] is a vector containing all but the fourth element

students[-4]

## [1] "Sean"   "Louisa" "Frank"  "Li"

Operators apply to vectors “pairwise” or “elementwise”:

final <- c(78, 84, 95, 82, 91) # Final exam scores
midterm # Midterm exam scores

## [1] 80 90 93 82 95

midterm + final # Sum of midterm and final scores

## [1] 158 174 188 164 186

(midterm + final)/2 # Average exam score

## [1] 79 87 94 82 93

course.grades <- 0.4*midterm + 0.6*final # Final course grade
course.grades

## [1] 78.8 86.4 94.2 82.0 92.6

Is the final score higher than the midterm score?

midterm 

## [1] 80 90 93 82 95

final

## [1] 78 84 95 82 91

final > midterm

## [1] FALSE FALSE  TRUE FALSE FALSE

Boolean operators can be applied elementwise:

(final < midterm) & (midterm > 80)

## [1] FALSE  TRUE FALSE FALSE  TRUE

course.grades

## [1] 78.8 86.4 94.2 82.0 92.6

mean(course.grades) # mean grade

## [1] 86.8

median(course.grades)

## [1] 86.4

sd(course.grades) # grade standard deviation

## [1] 6.625708

sort(course.grades)

## [1] 78.8 82.0 86.4 92.6 94.2

max(course.grades) # highest course grade

## [1] 94.2

min(course.grades) # lowest course grade

## [1] 78.8

students

## [1] "Sean"   "Louisa" "Frank"  "Farhad" "Li"

Vector of indices:

students[c(2,4)]

## [1] "Louisa" "Farhad"

Vector of negative indices

students[c(-1,-3)]

## [1] "Louisa" "Farhad" "Li"

which() returns the TRUE indexes of a Boolean vector:

course.grades

## [1] 78.8 86.4 94.2 82.0 92.6

a.threshold <- 90 # A grade = 90% or higher
course.grades >= a.threshold # vector of booleans

## [1] FALSE FALSE  TRUE FALSE  TRUE

a.students <- which(course.grades >= a.threshold) # Applying which() 
a.students

## [1] 3 5

students[a.students] # Names of A students

## [1] "Frank" "Li"

You can give names to elements or components of vectors

students

## [1] "Sean"   "Louisa" "Frank"  "Farhad" "Li"

names(course.grades) <- students # Assign names to the grades
names(course.grades)

## [1] "Sean"   "Louisa" "Frank"  "Farhad" "Li"

course.grades[c("Sean", "Frank","Li")] # Get final grades for 3 students

##  Sean Frank    Li 
##  78.8  94.2  92.6

Note the labels in what R prints; these are not actually part of the value

“Homework” 0: Course survey

• You’ll receive an announcement providing a link to a Google forms survey following today’s class.

Lab 1: http://www.andrew.cmu.edu/~achoulde/94842/

• Look under Tenatative Schedule for Week 1 or on Canvas
• Submit modified .Rmd file on Canvas by 11:59PM ET on Friday